"The Situation that has not its Duty,
its Ideal, was never yet occupied by man. Yes, here, in this poor, miserable,
hampered, despicable Actual, wherein thou even now standest, here or nowhere
is thy Ideal: work it out therefrom; and working, believe, live, be free."
CARLYLE.
" Work out your own salvation."--Paul.
"Any new set of conditions occurring
to an animal which render its food and safety very easily attained, seem
to lead as a rule to degeneration."--E. Ray Lankester.
PARASITES are the paupers of Nature. They
are forms of life which will not take the trouble to find their own food,
but borrow or steal it from the more industrious. So deep-rooted is this
tendency in Nature, that plants may become parasitic--it is an acquired
habit--as well as animals; and both are found in every state of beggary,
some doing a little for themselves, while others, more abject, refuse even
to prepare their own food.
There are certain plants--the Dodder, for
instance --which begin life with the best intentions, strike true roots
into the soil, and really appear as if they meant to be independent for
life. But after supporting themselves for a brief period they fix curious
sucking discs into the stem and branches of adjacent plants And after a
little experimenting, the epiphyte finally ceases to do anything for its
own support, thenceforth drawing all its supplies readymade from the sap
of its host. In this parasitic state it has no need for organs of nutrition
of its own, and Nature therefore takes them away. Henceforth, to the botanist,
the adult Dodder presents the degraded spectacle of a plant without a root,
without a twig, without a leaf, and having a stem so useless as to be inadequate
to bear its own weight.
In the Mistletoe the parasitic habit has
reached a stage in some respects lower still. It has persisted in the downward
course for so many generations that the young forms even have acquired
the habit and usually begin life at once as parasites. The Mistletoe berries,
which contain the seed of the future plant, are developed specially to
minister to this degeneracy, for they glue themselves to the branches of
some neighbouring oak or apple, and there the young Mistletoe starts as
a dependent from the first.
Among animals these lazzaroni are
more largely represented still. Almost every animal is a living poor-house,
and harbours one or more species of epizoa or entozoa, supplying
them gratis, not only with a permanent home, but with all the necessaries
and luxuries of life.
Why does the naturalist think hardly of the
parasites? Why does he speak of them as degraded, and despise them as the
most ignoble creatures in Nature? What more can an animal do than eat,
drink, and die to-morrow? If under the fostering care and protection of
a higher organism it can eat better, drink more easily, live more merrily,
and die, perhaps, not till the day after, why should it not do so? Is parasitism,
after all, not a somewhat clever ruse? Is it not an ingenious way
of securing the benefits of life while evading its responsibilities? And
although this mode of livelihood is selfish, and possibly undignified,
can it be said that it is immoral?
The naturalist's reply to this is brief.
Parasitism, he will say, is one of the gravest crimes in Nature. It is
a breach of the law of Evolution. Thou shalt evolve, thou shalt develop
all thy faculties to the full, thou shalt attain to the highest conceivable
perfection of thy race--and so perfect thy race--this is the first and
greatest commandment of Nature. But the parasite has no thought for its
race, or for perfection in any shape or form. It wants two things--food
and shelter. How it gets them is of no moment. Each member lives exclusively
on its own account, an isolated, indolent, selfish, and backsliding life.
The remarkable thing is that Nature permits
the community to be taxed in this way apparently without protest. For the
parasite is a consumer pure and simple. And the "Perfect Economy of
Nature" is surely for once at fault when it encourages species numbered
by thousands which produce nothing for their own or for the general good,
but live, and live luxuriously, at the expense of others?
Now when we look into the matter, we very
soon perceive that instead of secretly countenancing this ingenious device
by which parasitic animals and plants evade the great law of the Struggle
for Life, Nature sets her face most sternly against it. And, instead of
allowing the transgressors to slip through her fingers, as one might at
first suppose, she visits upon them the most severe and terrible penalties.
The parasite, she argues, not only injures itself, but wrongs others. It
disobeys the fundamental law of its own being, and taxes the innocent to
contribute to its disgrace. So that if Nature is just, if Nature has an
avenging hand, if she holds one vial of wrath more full and bitter than
another, it shall surely be poured out upon those who are guilty of this
double sin. Let us see what form this punishment takes.
Observant visitors to the sea-side, or let
us say to an aquarium, are familiar with those curious little creatures
known as Hermit-crabs. The peculiarity of the Hermits is that they take
up their abode in the cast-off shell of some other animal, not unusually
the whelk; and here, like Diogenes in his tub, the creature lives a solitary,
but by no means an inactive life.
The Paguras, however, is not a parasite.
And yet although in no sense of the word a parasite, this way of inhabiting
throughout life a house built by another animal approaches so closely the
parasitic habit, that we shall find it instructive as a preliminary illustration,
to consider the effect of this free-house policy on the occupant. There
is no doubt, to begin with, that, as has been already indicated, the habit
is an acquired one. In its general anatomy the Hermit is essentially a
crab. Now the crab is an animal which, from the nature of its environment,
has to lead a somewhat rough and perilous life. Its days are spent amongst
jagged rocks and boulders. Dashed about by every wave, attacked on every
side by monsters of the deep, the crustacean has to protect itself by developing
a strong and serviceable coat of mail.
How best to protect themselves has been the
problem to which the whole crab family have addressed themselves; and,
in considering the matter, the ancestors of the Hermit-crab hit on the
happy device of re-utilising the habitations of the molluscs which lay
around them in plenty, well-built, and ready for immediate occupation.
For generations and generations accordingly, the Hermit-crab has ceased
to exercise itself upon questions of safety, and dwells in its little shell
as proudly and securely as if its second-hand house were a fortress erected
especially for its private use.
Wherein, then, has the Hermit suffered for
this cheap, but real solution of a practical difficulty? Whether its laziness
costs it any moral qualms, or whether its cleverness becomes to it a source
of congratulation, we do not know; but judged from the appearance the animal
makes under the searching gaze of the zoologist, its expedient is certainly
not one to be commended. To the eye of Science its sin is written in the
plainest characters on its very organization. It has suffered in its own
anatomical structure just by as much as it has borrowed from an external
source. Instead of being a perfect crustacean it has allowed certain important
parts of its body to deteriorate. And several vital organs are partially
or wholly atrophied.
Its sphere of life also is now seriously
limited; and by a cheap expedient to secure safety, it has fatally lost
its independence. It is plain from its anatomy that the Hermit-crab was
not always a Hermit-crab. It was meant for higher things. Its ancestors
doubtless were more or less perfect crustaceans, though what exact stage
of development was reached before the hermit habit became fixed in the
species we cannot tell. But from the moment the creature took to relying
on an external source, it began to fall. It slowly lost in its own person
all that it now draws from external aid.
As an important item in the day's work, namely,
the securing of safety and shelter, was now guaranteed to it, one of the
chief inducements to a life of high and vigilant effort was at the same
time withdrawn. A number of functions, in fact, struck work. The whole
of the parts, therefore, of the complex organism which ministered to these
functions, from lack of exercise, or total disuse, became gradually feeble;
and ultimately, by the stern law that an unused organ must suffer a slow
but inevitable atrophy, the creature not only lost all power of motion
in these parts, but lost the parts themselves, and otherwise sank into
a relatively degenerate condition.
Every normal crustacean, on the other hand,
has the abdominal region of the body covered by a thick chitinous shell.
In the Hermits this is represented only by a thin and delicate membrane--of
which the sorry figure the creature cuts when drawn from its foreign hiding-place
is sufficient evidence. Any one who now examines further this half-naked
and woebegone object, will perceive also that the fourth and fifth pair
of limbs are either so small and wasted as to be quite useless or altogether
rudimentary; and, although certainly the additional development of the
extremity of the tail into an organ for holding on to its extemporised
retreat may be regarded as a slight compensation, it is clear from the
whole structure of the animal that it has allowed itself to undergo severe
Degeneration.
In dealing with the Hermit-crab, in short,
we are dealing with a case of physiological backsliding. That the creature
has lost anything by this process from a practical point of view is not
now argued. It might fairly be shown, as already indicated, that its freedom
is impaired by its cumbrous eko-skeleton, and that, in contrast with other
crabs, who lead a free and roving life, its independence generally is greatly
limited. But from the physiological standpoint, there is no question that
the Hermit tribe have neither discharged their responsibilities to Nature
nor to themselves. If the end of life is merely to escape death, and serve
themselves, possibly they have done well; but if it is to attain an ever
increasing perfection, then are they backsliders indeed.
A zoologist's verdict would be that by this
act they have forfeited to some extent their place in the animal scale.
An animal is classed as low or high according as it is adapted to less
or more complex conditions of life. This is the true standpoint from which
to judge all living organisms. Were perfection merely a matter of continual
eating and drinking, the Amoeba--the lowest known organism--might take
rank with the highest, Man, for the one nourishes itself and saves its
skin almost as completely as the other. But judged by the higher standard
of Complexity, that is, by greater or lesser adaptation to more or less
complex conditions, the gulf between them is infinite.
We have now received a preliminary idea,
although not from the study of a true parasite, of the essential principles
involved in parasitism. And we may proceed to point out the correlative
in the moral and spiritual spheres. We confine ourselves for the present
to one point. The difference between the Hermit-crab and a true parasite
is, that the former has acquired a semi-parasitic habit only with reference
to safety. It may be that the Hermit devours as a preliminary the
accommodating mollusc whose tenement it covets; but it would become a real
parasite only on the supposition that the whelk was of such size as to
keep providing for it throughout life, and that the external and internal
organs of the crab should disappear, while it lived henceforth, by simple
imbibation, upon the elaborated juices of its host. All the mollusc provides,
however, for the crustacean in this instance is safety, and, accordingly
in the meantime we limit our application to this. The true parasite presents
us with an organism so much more degraded in all its parts, that its lessons
may well be reserved until we have paved the way to understand the deeper
bearings of the subject.
The spiritual principle to be illustrated
in the meantime stands thus: Any principle which secures the safety
of the individual without personal effort or the vital exercise of faculty
is disastrous to moral character. We do not begin by attempting to
define words. Were we to define truly what is meant by safety or salvation,
we should be spared further elaboration, and the law would stand out as
a sententious common-place. But we have to deal with the ideas of safety
as these are popularly held, and the chief purpose at this stage is to
expose what may be called the Parasitic Doctrine of Salvation. The phases
of religious experience about to be described may be unknown to many. It
remains for those who are familiar with the religious conceptions of the
masses to determine whether or not we are wasting words.
What is meant by the Parasitic Doctrine of
Salvation one may, perhaps, best explain by sketching two of its leading
types. The first is the doctrine of the Church of Rome; the second, that
represented by the narrower Evangelical Religion. We take these religions,
however, not in their ideal form, with which possibly we should have little
quarrel, but in their practical working, or in the form in which they are
held especially by the rank and file of those who belong respectively to
these communions. For the strength or weakness of any religious system
is best judged from the form in which it presents itself to, and influences
the common mind.
No more perfect or more sad example of semi-parasitism
exists than in the case of those illiterate thousands who, scattered everywhere
throughout the habitable globe, swell the lower ranks of the Church of
Rome. Had an organization been specially designed, indeed, to induce the
parasitic habit in the souls of men, nothing better fitted to its disastrous
end could be established than the system of Roman Catholicism. Roman Catholicism
offers to the masses a molluscan shell. They have simply to shelter themselves
within its pale, and they are "safe." But what is this "safe"?
It is an external safety--the safety of an institution. It is a salvation
recommended to men by all that appeals to the motives in most common use
with the vulgar and the superstitious, but which has as little vital connection
with the individual soul as the dead whelk's shell with the living Hermit.
Salvation is a relation at once vital, personal, and spiritual. This is
mechanical and purely external. And this is of course the final secret
of its marvellous success and worldwide power. A cheap religion is the
desideratum of the human heart; and an assurance of salvation at the smallest
possible cost forms the tempting bait held out to a conscience-stricken
world by the Romish Church. Thousands, therefore, who have never been taught
to use their faculties in "working out their own salvation,"
thousands who will not exercise themselves religiously, and who yet cannot
be without the exercises of religion, intrust themselves in idle faith
to that venerable house of refuge which for centuries has stood between
God and man. A Church which has harboured generations of the elect, whose
archives enshrine the names of saints whose foundations are consecrated
with martyrs' blood--shall it not afford a sure asylum still for any soul
which would make its peace with God? So, as the Hermit into the molluscan
shell, creeps the poor soul within the pale of Rome, seeking, like Adam
in the garden, to hide its nakedness from God.
Why does the true lover of men restrain not
his lips in warning his fellows against this and all other priestly religions?
It is not because he fails to see the prodigious energy of the Papal See,
or to appreciate the many noble types of Christian manhood nurtured within
its pale. Nor is it because its teachers are often corrupt and its system
of doctrine inadequate as a representation of the Truth--charges which
have to be made more or less against all religions. But it is because it
ministers falsely to the deepest need of man, reduces the end of religion
to selfishness, and offers safety without spirituality. That these, theoretically,
are its pretensions, we do not affirm; but that its practical working is
to induce in man, and in its worst forms, the parasitic habit, is testified
by results. No one who has studied the religion of the Continent upon the
spot, has failed to be impressed with the appalling spectacle of tens of
thousands of unregenerate men sheltering themselves, as they conceive it
for Eternity, behind the Sacraments of Rome.
There is no stronger evidence of the inborn
parasitic tendency in man in things religious than the absolute complacency
with which even cultured men will hand over their eternal interests to
the care of a Church. We can never dismiss from memory the sadness with
which we once listened to the confession of a certain foreign professor:
"I used to be concerned about religion," he said in substance,
" but religion is a great subject. I was very busy; there was little
time to settle it for myself. A Protestant, my attention was called to
the Roman Catholic religion. It suited my case. And instead of dabbling
in religion for myself I put myself in its hands. Once a year," he
concluded, "I go to mass." These were the words of one whose
work will live in the history of his country, one, too, who knew all about
parasitism. Yet, though he thought it not, this is parasitism in its worst
and most degrading form. Nor, in spite of its intellectual, not to say
moral sin, is this an extreme or exceptional case. It is a case, which
is being duplicated every day in our own country, only here the confession
is expressed with a candour which is rare in company with actions betraying
so signally the want of it.
The form of parasitism exhibited by a certain
section of the narrower Evangelical school is altogether different from
that of the Church of Rome. The parasite in this case seeks its shelter,
not in a Church, but in a Doctrine or a Creed. Let it be observed again
that we are not dealing with the Evangelical Religion, but only with one
of its parasitic forms--a form which will at once be recognised by all
who know the popular Protestantism of this country. We confine ourselves
also at present to that form which finds its encouragement in a single
doctrine, that doctrine being the Doctrine of the Atonement--let us say,
rather, a perverted form of this central truth.
The perverted Doctrine of the Atonement,
which tends to beget the parasitic habit, may be defined in a single sentence--it
is very much because it can be defined in a single sentence that it is
a perversion. Let us state it in a concrete form. It is put to the individual
in the following syllogism: "You believe Christ died for sinners;
you are a sinner; therefore Christ died for you; and hence you are saved."
Now what is this but another species of molluscan shell? Could any trap
for a benighted soul be more ingeniously planned? It is not superstition
that is appealed to this time; it is reason. The agitated soul is invited
to creep into the convolutions of a syllogism, and entrench itself behind
a Doctrine more venerable even than the Church. But words are mere chitine.
Doctrines may have no more vital contact with the soul than priest or sacrament,
no further influence on life and character than stone and lime. And yet
the apostles of parasitism pick a blackguard from the streets, pass him
through this plausible formula, and turn him out a convert in the space
of as many minutes as it takes to tell it.
The zeal of these men, assuredly, is not
to be questioned: their instincts are right, and their work is often not
in vain. It is possible, too, up to a certain point, to defend this Salvation
by Formula. Are these not the very words of Scripture? Did not Christ Himself
say, "It is finished"? And is it not written, "By grace
are ye saved through faith," "Not of works, lest any man should
boast," and "He that believeth on the Son hath everlasting life"?
To which, however, one might also answer in the words of Scripture, "The
Devils also believe," and "Except a man be born again he cannot
see the Kingdom of God." But without seeming to make text refute text,
let us ask rather what the supposed convert possesses at the end of the
process. That Christ saves sinners, even blackguards from the streets,
is a great fact; and that the simple words of the street evangelist do
sometimes bring this home to man with convincing power is also a fact.
But in ordinary circumstances, when the inquirer's mind is rapidly urged
through the various stages of the above piece of logic, he is left to face
the future and blot out the past with a formula of words.
To be sure these words may already convey
a germ of truth, they may yet be filled in with a wealth of meaning and
become a lifelong power. But we would state the case against Salvation
by Formula with ignorant and unwarranted clemency did we for a moment convey
the idea that this is always the actual result. The doctrine plays too
well into the hands of the parasitic tendency to make it possible that
in more than a minority of cases the result is anything but disastrous.
And it is disastrous not in that, sooner or later, after losing half their
lives, those who rely on the naked syllogism come to see their mistake,
but in that thousands never come to see it at all. Are there not men who
can prove to you and to the world, by the irresistible logic of texts,
that they are saved, whom you know to be not only unworthy of the Kingdom
of God-- which we all are--but absolutely incapable of entering it? The
condition of membership in the Kingdom of God is well known; who fulfil
this condition and who do not, is not well known. And yet the moral test,
in spite of the difficulty of its applications, will always, and rightly,
be preferred by the world to the theological. Nevertheless, in spite of
the world's verdict, the parasite is content. He is "safe." Years
ago his mind worked through a certain chain of phrases in which the words
"believe" and "saved" were the conspicuous terms. And
from that moment, by all Scriptures, by all logic, and by all theology,
his future was guaranteed. He took out, in short, an insurance policy,
by which he was infallibly secured eternal life at death. This is not a
matter to make light of. We wish we were caricaturing instead of representing
things as they are. But we carry with us all who intimately know the spiritual
condition of the Narrow Church in asserting that in some cases at least
its members have nothing more to show for their religion than a formula,
a syllogism, a cant phrase or an experience of some kind which happened
long ago, and which men told them at the time was called Salvation. Need
we proceed to formulate objections to the parasitism of Evangelicalism?
Between it and the Religion of the Church of Rome there is an affinity
as real as it is unsuspected. For one thing these religions are spiritually
disastrous as well as theologically erroneous in propagating a false conception
of Christianity. The fundamental idea alike of the extreme Roman Catholic
and extreme Evangelical Religions is Escape. Man's chief end is to "get
off." And all factors in religion, the highest and most sacred, are
degraded to this level. God, for example, is a Great Lawyer. Or He is the
Almighty Enemy; it is from Him we have to "get off." Jesus Christ
is the One who gets us off--a theological figure who contrives so to adjust
matters federally that the way is clear. The Church in the one instance
is a kind of conveyancing office where the transaction is duly concluded,
each party accepting the other's terms; in the other case, a species of
sheep-pen where the flock awaits impatiently and indolently the final consummation.
Generally, the means are mistaken for the end, and the opening-up of the
possibility of spiritual growth becomes the signal to stop growing.
Second, these being cheap religions, are
inevitably accompanied by a cheap life. Safety being guaranteed from the
first, there remains nothing else to be done. The mechanical way in which
the transaction is effected, leaves the soul without stimulus, and the
character remains untouched by the moral aspects of the sacrifice of Christ.
He who is unjust is unjust still; he who is unholy is unholy still. Thus
the whole scheme ministers to the Degeneration of Organs. For here, again,
by just as much as the organism borrows mechanically from an external source,
by so much exactly does it lose in its own organization. Whatever rest
is provided by Christianity for the children of God, it is certainly never
contemplated that it should supersede personal effort. And any rest which
ministers to indifference is immoral and unreal--it makes parasites and
not men. Just because God worketh in him, as the evidence and triumph of
it, the true child of God works out his own salvation--works it out having
really received it--not as a light thing, a superfluous labour, but with
fear and trembling as a reasonable and indispensable service.
If it be asked, then, shall the parasite
be saved or shall he not, the answer is that the idea of salvation conveyed
by the question makes a reply all but hopeless. But if by salvation is
meant, a trusting in Christ in order to likeness to Christ, in order
to that holiness without which no man shall see the Lord, the reply
is that the parasite's hope is absolutely vain. So far from ministering
to growth, parasitism ministers to decay. So far from ministering to holiness,
that is to wholeness, parasitism ministers to exactly the opposite.
One by one the spiritual faculties droop and die, one by one from lack
of exercise the muscles of the soul grow weak and flaccid, one by one the
moral activities cease. So from him that hath not, is taken away that which
he hath, and after a few years of parasitism there is nothing left to save.
If our meaning up to this point has been
sufficiently obscure to make the objection now possible that this protest
against Parasitism is opposed to the doctrines of Free Grace, we cannot
hope in a closing sentence to free the argument from a suspicion so ill-judged.
The adjustment between Faith and Works does not fall within our province
now. Salvation truly is the free gift of God, but he who really knows how
much this means knows--and just because it means so much--how much of consequent
action it involves. With the central doctrines of grace the whole scientific
argument is in too wonderful harmony to be found wanting here. The natural
life, not less than the eternal, is the gift of God. But life in either
case is the beginning of growth and not the end of grace. To pause where
we should begin, to retrograde where we should advance, to seek a mechanical
security that we may cover inertia and find a wholesale salvation in which
there is no personal sanctification--this is Parasitism.